intestinal parasites

Allium sativum

(In territories with significant traditional TRAMIL use)

Guadeloupe:

ail
lay

Guatemala:

ajo

Dominican Republic:

ajo

Barbados:

garlic

Haiti:

lay

Saint Lucia:

lay

Significant uses found by the TRAMIL surveys

bulb, decoction, taken orally⁴^,74

Recommendations Preparation and Dosage References

Use for “bad blood” is a traditional cultural use of our communities and is not classified in the TRAMIL Program.

According to published and other information:

Use for skin conditions, pruritus, candidiasis, gastric bloating, nausea, flatulence, and intestinal parasites is classified as REC, based on significant traditional use documented in the TRAMIL surveys and published scientific information.

Use for toothaches, earaches, and fever is classified as REC, based on significant traditional uses (OMS/WHO)⁷ documented by TRAMIL surveys.

The bulb can cause reactions of hypersensitivity. For topical application, strict hygiene measures should be observed in order to avoid contamination or additional infection.

Due to the possibility that an earache could signal a middle or inner ear infection, immediate medical evaluation is recommended. Do not use if there are secretions from the ear and/or possible perforation of the eardrum. If the patient’s condition worsens or if the earache persists for more than 2 days, seek medical attention.

Contraindicated for use in hyperthyroidism⁸. The extracts from garlic interact with anticoagulant, antihypertensive and antidiabetic treatments.

The bulb of Allium sativum is widely used for human consumption.

The garlic bulb for medicinal purposes should be taken together with meals, so as to prevent gastro-intestinal problems⁷¹.

For fever, gastric bloating, nausea, flatulence and intestinal parasites:

Prepare a decoction with 2 to 5 grams of fresh garlic⁷¹ (1 to 2.5 cloves) or 2 to 4 grams of dried garlic⁷¹ in 1 cup of water (250 mL), boil for at least 10 minutes in a covered pot. Cool and drink 1 cup 3 times a day.

For other forms of administration of garlic bulb, the daily consumption doses recommended by OMS⁷¹ are: for oil: 2 to 5 mg; for extracts, 300 to 1000 mg (as solid material). Other type of pharmaceutical preparations should meet alliine values of 4-12 mg or allicine values of 2-5 mg⁷¹.

For treatment of skin conditions, pruritus, candidiasis, toothache, and earache:

2 to 5 g (1 to 2.5 cloves) of peeled fresh garlic; wash thoroughly and crush, then apply to the affected area twice a day.

1 WENIGER B, ROUZIER M, 1986
Enquête TRAMIL. Service Oecuménique d’Entraide SOE, Port au Prince, Haïti.

2 GERMOSÉN-ROBINEAU L, GERÓNIMO M, AMPARO C, 1984
Encuesta TRAMIL. enda-caribe, Santo Domingo, Rep. Dominicana.

3 GIRÓN L, 1988
Encuesta TRAMIL (Costa atlántica). Centro Mesoamericano de Tecnología CEMAT, Guatemala, Guatemala.

4 WENIGER B, 1987-88
Encuesta TRAMIL. enda-caribe, Santo Domingo, Rep. Dominicana.

5 JEAN-PIERRE L, 1988
TRAMIL survey. St. Lucia National Herbarium, Castries, St Lucia.

6 FAUJOUR A, MURREY D, CHELTENHAM-CORBIN B, CARRINGTON S, 2003
TRAMIL survey. enda-caribbean, IICA & UAG, Saint Thomas, Barbados.

7 BOULOGNE I, 2008
Enquête TRAMIL, Les Saintes, UAG, Guadeloupe (FWI).

8 NATURAL STANDARD, 2010
Garlic (Allium sativum L.). Foods, Herbs & Supplements. www.naturalstandard.com/monographs/herbssupplements/garlic. Last updated 5/17/2010.

9 GRUENWALD J, BRENDLER T, JAENICKE C, 2004
Physicians’ Desk Reference for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition. Montvale, NJ, USA: Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 988pp.

10 BRINKER FND, 2001
Herb contraindications and drug interactions. 3° edition. Sandy, Oregon, USA: Eclectic Medical Publications.

11 ARTECHI A (Ed.), 1998
Fitoterapia Vademécum de prescripción de Plantas Medicinales. Barcelona, España: Masson. p63.

12 ALONSO JR, 1998
Tratado de fitomedicina. Bases clínicas et farmacológicas. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Ed. ISIS S.R.L. p208.

13 QUILEZ AM, GARCÍA D, SÁENZ T, 2009
Uso racional de medicamentos a base de plantas. Guía de interacciones entre fitomedicamentos et fármacos de síntesis. Sevilla, España: 1a Edición Fundación Farmacéutica Avenzoar.

14 MEDLINE PLUS, 2009
Ajo (Allium sativum L.). Biblioteca Nacional de Medecina de EE.UU et los Institutos Nacionales de la Salud. URL: www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/spanish/druginfo/natural/patient-garlic.htm….

15 CAPORASO N, SMITH S, ENG R, 1983
Antifungal activity in human urine and serum after ingestion of garlic. Antimicob Agents Chemother 23(5):700-702.

16 PISCITELLI SC, BURSTEIN AH, WELDEN N, GALLICANO KD, FALLOON J, 2002
The effect of garlic supplements on the pharmacokinetics of saquinavir. Clinical infectious diseases 34(2):234-238.

17 GALLICANO K, FOSTER B, CHOUDHRI S, 2003
Effect of short-term administration of garlic supplements on single-dose ritonavir pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers. British J of Clinical Pharmacology 55(2):199-202.

18 MARKOWITZ JS, DEVANE CL, CHAVIN KD, TAYLOR RM, RUAN Y, DONOVAN JL, 2003
Effects of garlic (Allium sativum L.) supplementation on cytochrome P450 2D6 and 3A4 activity in healthy volunteers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 74(2):170-177.

19 AL-NAGDY SA, ABDEL-RAHMAN MO, HEIBA HI, 1988
Evidence for some prostaglandins in Allium sativum extracts. Phytother Res 2:4196-4197.

20 ROLLERI F, 1943
Occurrence of nicotinic acid and nicotinamide in curative plants. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 281:118.

21 DUKE JA, ATCHLEY AA, 1986
Handbook of proximate analysis tables of higher plants. Boca Ratón, USA: CRC Press. p13.

22 DR. DUKE’S PHYTOCHEMICAL AND ETHNOBOTANICAL DATABASES, 2009
www.ars-grin.gov/duke/

23 KOCH HP, JAGER W, GROH U, HOVIE JE, PLANK G, SEDLAK U, PRAZNIK W, 1993
Carbohydrates from garlic bulbs (Allium sativum L.) as inhibitors of adenosine deaminase enzyme activity. Phytother Res 7(5):387-389.

24 BAUMGARTNER S, DAX TG, PRAZNIK W, FALK H, 2000
Characterisation of the high-molecular weight fructan isolated from garlic (Allium sativum L.). Carbohydr Res 328(2):177-183.

25 RAKHIMBAEV IR, OL’SHANSKAYA RV, 1981
Preliminary identification of natural gibberellins of garlic. Izv Akad Nauk Kaz Ssr Ser Biol 2:17-22.

26 INAGAKI M, HARADA Y, YAMADA K, ISOBE R, HIGUCHI R, MATSUURA H, ITAKURA Y, 1998
Isolation and structure determination of cerebrosides from garlic, the bulbs of Allium sativum L. Chem Pharm Bull 46(7):1153-1156.

27 SENDL A, ELBL G, STEINKE B, REDL K, BREU W, WAGNER H, 1992
Comparative pharmacological investigations of Allium ursinum and Allium sativum. Planta Med 58(1):1-7.

28 MOCHIZUKI E, YAMAMOTO T, KOMIYAMA Y, NAKAZAWA H, 1998
Identification of Allium products using flame photometric detection gas chromatography and distribution patterns of volatile sulfur compounds. J Agr Food Chem 46(12):5170-5176.

29 UEDA Y, SAKAGUCHI M, HIRAYAMA K, MIYAJIMA R, KIMIZUKA A, 1990
Characteristic flavor constituents in water extract of garlic. Agr Biol Chem 54(1):163-169.

30 LAWSON LD, WOOD SG, HUGHES BG, 1991
hplc analysis of allicin and other thiosulfinates in garlic clove homogenates. Planta Med 57(3):263-270.

31 MUTSCH-ECKNER M, ERDELMEIER CAJ, STICHER O, REUTER HD, 1993
A novel amino acid glycoside and three amino acids from Allium sativum. J Nat Prod 56(6):864-869.

32 PENG JP, CHEN H, QIAO YQ, MA LR, NARUI T, SUZUKI H, OKUYAMA T, KOBAYASHI H, 1996
Two new steroidal saponins from Allium sativum and their inhibitory effects on blood coagulability. Yao Hsueh Hsueh Pao 31(8):607-612.

33 MATSUURA H, USHIROGUCHI T, ITAKURA Y, FUWA T, 1989
Further studies on steroidal glycosides from bulbs, roots and leaves of Allium sativum L. Chem Pharm Bull 37(10):2741-2743.

34 VICTORIA MdC, MORÓN FJ, MARTÍNEZ I, BRITO G, FUENTES V, 2011
Efecto antipirético de la decocción 30% de bulbo fresco machacado de Allium sativum (ajo) en ratas. Informe TRAMIL. Facultad de Ciencias Médicas “Dr. Salvador Allende”, Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, La Habana, Cuba.

35 SHARMA V, SETHI M, KUMAR A, RAROTRA JR, 1977
Antibacterial property of Allium sativum in vivo & in vitro studies. Indian J Exp Biol 15:466.

36 SHAMS M, SHOKOOHAMIRI MR, AMIRRAJAB N, MOGHADASI B, GHAJARI A, ZEINI F, SADEGHI G, RAZZAGHI M, 2006
In vitro antifungal activities of Allium cepa, Allium sativum and ketoconazole against some pathogenic yeasts and dermatophytes. Fitoterapia 77:321-323.

37 MOLINA NM, 1992
Actividad antimicrobiana de extractos de Allium sativum. Evaluación preclínica, farmacológica et toxicológica (Tesis de graduación). Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas “Dr. Salvador Allende”, La Habana, Cuba.

38 EL-TANBOULY ND, ABDEL-MEGID RM, 1994
HPLC determination of alliin in garlic and garlic products and their antimicrobal activity. Zagazig J Pharm Sci 3(3A):120-124.

39 CÁCERES A, GIRÓN LM, ALVARADO SR, TORRES MF, 1987
Screening of antimicrobial activity of plants popularly used in Guatemala for the treatment of dermatomucosal diseases. J Ethnopharmacol 20(3):223-237.

40 KABELIK J, 1970
Antimicrobial properties of garlic. Pharmazie 25(4):266-270.

41 ADETUMBI M, JAVOR GT, LAU BH, 1986
Allium sativum (garlic) inhibits lipid synthesis by Candida albicans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 30(3):499-501.

42 APPLETON JA, TANSEY MR, 1975
Inhibition of growth of zoopathogenic fungi by garlic extract. Mycologia 67:882-885.

43 PLODDEE A, PALAKORNKOL R, 1977
Antifungal activity of garlic. Undergraduate Special Project Report 1977:23.

44 DELAHA EC, GARAGUSI VF, 1985
Inhibition of mycobacteria by garlic extract (Allium sativum ). Antimicrob Agents Chemother 27(4):485-486.

45 FERNÁNDEZ EJ, 1995
Efecto de dos formulaciones hidroalcohólicas de Allium sativum en el tratamiento de patients con dermatofitosis (Tesis de especialidad en farmacología). Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas “Dr. Salvador Allende”, La Habana, Cuba.

46 PRASAD G, SHARMA VD, RAO VN, KUMAR A, 1983
Efficacy of garlic (Allium sativum) treatment against dermatophytosis in man and animals. Indian Vet Med J 7(3):161-163.

47 MARTÍNEZ CROVETTO R, 1981
Plantas utilizadas en medicina en el Noroeste de Corrientes. Miscelanea (Fund Miguel Lillo) 69:7-139.

48 ABDEL-GHAFFAR F, SEMMLER M, AL-RASHEID KA, STRASSEN B, FISCHER K, AKSU G, KLIMPEL S, MEHLHORN H, 2011
The effects of different plant extracts on intestinal cestodes and on trematodes. Parasitol Res 108(4):979-984.

49 SOFFAR SA, MOKHTAR GM, 1991
Evaluation of the antiparasitic effect of aqueous garlic (Allium sativum) extract in Hymenolepiasis nana and giardiasis. J Egypt Soc Parasitol 21(2):497-502.

50 NAHED HA, HODA AT, YOMNA IM, 2009
Effects of garlic on albino mice experimentally infected with Schistosoma mansoni: a parasitological and ultrastructural study. Trop Biomed 26(1):40-50.

51 GAAFAR MR, 2012
Efficacy of Allium sativum (garlic) against experimental cryptosporidiosis, Alexandria J of Medicine 48:59–66.

52 DAMRAU F, FERGUSON E, 1949
The modus vivendi of carminative. The therapeutic value of garlic in functional gastrointestinal disorders. Rev Med J 2:757-758.

53 DEBLASI V, DEBROT S, MENOUD A, GENDRE L, SCHOWING J, 1990
Amoebicidal effect of essential oils in vitro. J Toxicol Clin Exp 10:361-373.

54 MARTÍNEZ MJ, MOREJÓN Z, LÓPEZ M, BOUCOURT E, FUENTES V, MORÓN F, 2005
Irritabilidad dérmica primaria de bulbo fresco machacado de Allium sativum L. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina “Dr. Salvador Allende”, Cerro, C. Habana, Cuba.

55 MARTÍNEZ MJ, MOREJÓN Z, LÓPEZ M, BOUCOURT E, FUENTES V, MORÓN F, 2005
Clases tóxicas agudas (CTA) de una decocción de bulbo de Allium sativum L. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas “Dr. Salvador Allende”, La Habana, Cuba.

56 GARNIER G, BEZANGER-BEAUQUESNE L, 1961
Ressources médicinales de la flore française. Paris, France: Ed. Vigot Frères.

57 BOJS G, SVENSSON A, 1988
Contact allergy to garlic used for wound healing. Contact Derm 18(3):179-181.

58 PAPAGEORGION C, CORBET JP, BRANDAO FM, PECEGUEIRO M, BENEZIA C, 1983.
Allergic contact dermatitis to Garlic (Allium sativum L.). Identification of the allergens: the role of mono-di and trisulfides present in garlic. A comparative study in man and animal (guinea pig). Arch Dermatol Res 275(4):229-234.

59 KANEZAWA A, NAKAGAWA S, SUMIYOSHI H, MASAMOTO K, HARADA H, NAKAGAMI S, DATE S, YOKOTA A, NISHIKAWA M, FUWA T, 1984
General toxicity tests of garlic extract preparation contained vitamins (Kyoleopin). Pharmacometrics 27(5):909-929.

60 SUMIYOSHI H, KANEZAWA A, MASAMOTO K, HARADA H, NAKAGAMI S, YOKOTA A, NISHIKAWA M, NAKAGAWA S, 1984
Chronic toxicity test of garlic extract in rats. J Toxicol Sci 9(1):61-75.

61 AL-BEKAIRI AM, SHAH AH, QURESHI S, 1990
Effect of Allium sativum on epididymal spermatozoa, estradiol-treated mice and general toxicity. J Ethnopharmacol 29(2):117-125.

62 HUH K, PARK JM, LEE S-IL, 1985
Effect of garlic on the therapeutic glutathione S-transferase and glutathione peroxidase activity in rat. Arch Pharm Res 8(4):197-203.

63 SITPRIJA S, PLENGVIDHYA C, KANGKAYA V, BHUVAPANICH S, TUNKAYOON M, 1987
Garlic and diabetes mellitus phase III clinical trial. J Med Assoc 70(2):223-227.

64 MC CRINDLE BW, HELDEN E, CONNER WT, 1998
Garlic extract therapy in children with hypercholesterolemia. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 152(11):1089-1094.

65 CHUTANI SK, BORDIA A, 1981
The effect of fried versus raw garlic on fibrinolytic activity in man. Therosclerosis 38:417-421.

66 SHARAF A, 1969
Food plant as a possible factor in fertility contrôle. Qual Plant MaterVeg 17:153.

67 CHAUHAN LS, GARG J, BEDI HK, GUPTA RC, BOMB BS, AGARWAL MP, 1982
Effect of onion, garlic and clofibrate on coagulation and fibrinolytic activity of blood in cholesterol fed rabbits. Indian Med J 76(10):126-127.

68 WHO, 2004
Allium sativum. WHO Monographs on selected medicinal plants. Volume 1. Bulbis Alii Sativi. Ginebra, Suiza, Oct.28,2004. URL: www.who.int/medicines/library/trm/medicinalplants/monograph_volume_one…

Citrus aurantium

(In territories with significant traditional TRAMIL use)

Mexico:

naranja agria
naranja de babor

Puerto Rico:

naranja agria
naranja de babor

Cuba:

naranja agria
naranja de babor

Dominican Republic:

naranja agria, naranja de babor

Martinique:

oranger amer
zowanj anmè

Grenada:

sour orange

Haiti:

zowanj gospo
zowanj si

Significant uses found by the TRAMIL surveys

leaf, decoction, orally⁶

Recommendations Preparation and Dosage References

According to published and other information:

Use for colic, conjunctivitis, headache, fever, flu, intestinal parasites and cough is classified as REC, based on the significant traditional use (OMS/WHO)⁴ documented in the TRAMIL surveys.

In every application in the eyes, strict hygiene measures should be observed in order to avoid contamination or additional infection. Additionally, contact with any substances that may be irritating to the conjunctiva should be avoided. There exists the risk of increasing irritation due to the application of Citrus spp juice.

Should there be a notable worsening of the patient’s condition, or should fever last more than 2 days, or should conjunctivitis or headache last more than 3 days, seek medical attention.

Use for diarrhea and flatulence is classified as REC, based on the significant traditional use documented in the TRAMIL surveys, and on available published scientific information.

In the case of diarrhea, the use of this resource can be considered complementary to oral re-hydration therapy. Should there be a notable worsening of the patient’s condition, or should diarrhea last more than 3 days in adult, or 2 days in children, seek medical attention.

Due to the risk of interaction with cyclosporin, ingestion of the fruit decoction should be avoided by anyone taking this medicine.

The essential oil of the plant can cause reactions of hypersensitivity.

The fruit and the juice of Citrus aurantium are widely used for human consumption and the peel as an industrial source of essential oil.

For colic, headache, fever, flu:

Prepare a decoction or infusion with 10-15 grams (3-5 tender leaves) in 1/2 liter (2 cups) of water. For decoction, boil for at least 10 minutes in a covered pot; for infusion, add boiling water to 3-5 tender leaves, cover and leave to cool down. Drink lukewarm, 1 cup 3 times a day¹.

For fever:

Prepare a decoction with 1-2 teaspoonfuls (5-10 grams) of fruit peel in 250 mL (1 cup) of water, boil for at least 10 minutes in a covered pot. Filter, cool down and drink 1 cup 3 times a day³³.

For flatulence:

Prepare an infusion, adding 1 liter (4 cups) of boiling water to the peel of half a fruit. Cover the pot, let it settle for 5-10 minutes and filter. Drink 1 cup as needed⁵.

For intestinal parasites:

Prepare a decoction with 8-18 tender leaves in 1/2 liter (2 cups) of water. Boil for at least 10 minutes in a covered pot. Leave it to cool down, sweeten with honey and drink lukewarm, 1 cup twice a day¹.

For conjunctivitis, diarrhea, flu, cough (juice):

There is no available information establishing a means of preparation and dosage other than that referred to by traditional use.

1 MOREJON Z, LOPEZ M, GARCIA MJ, BOUCOURT E, VICTORIA M, FUENTES V, MORON F, BOULOGNE I, ROBINEAU L, 2009
Encuesta TRAMIL preliminar a grupos de vecinos en los municipios 10 de Octubre, Lisa, Marianao, Habana del Este (Cojímar) en la Ciudad de la Habana. Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Universidad de Ciencias Médicas de La Habana, Ciudad de La Habana, Cuba.

2 MENDEZ M, MEDINA ML, DURAN R, 1996
Encuesta TRAMIL. Unidad de recursos naturales, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán CICY, Mérida, México.

3 WENIGER B, ROUZIER M, 1986
Enquête TRAMIL. Service Oecuménique d'Entraide SOE, Port au Prince, Haïti.

4 WENIGER B, 1987-88
Encuesta TRAMIL. enda-caribe, Santo Domingo, Rep. Dominicana.

5 GERMOSEN-ROBINEAU L, GERONIMO M, AMPARO C, 1984
Encuesta TRAMIL. enda-caribe, Santo Domingo, Rep. Dominicana.

6 MARCELLE G, 1996
TRAMIL survey. Produce chemist laboratory, Ministry of Agriculture, St George's, Grenada.

7 BENEDETTI MD, 1994
Encuesta TRAMIL. Universidad de Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico.

8 LONGUEFOSSE JL, NOSSIN E, 1990-95
Enquête TRAMIL. Association pour la valorisation des plantes médicinales de la Caraïbe AVPMC, Fort de France, Martinique.

9 LIN Z, HUA Y, GU Y, 1986
The chemical constituents of the essential oil from the flowers, leaves and peels of Citrus aurantium. Chih Wu Hsueh Pao 28(6):635-640.

10 RIO JAD, BENAVENTE O, CASTILLO J, BORREGO F, 1992
Neodiosmin, a flavone glycoside of Citrus aurantium. Phytochemistry 31(2):723-724.

11 BENNETT RD, MIYAKE M, OZAKI Y, HASEGAWA S, 1991
Limonoid glucosides in Citrus aurantium. Phytochemistry 30(11):3803-3805.

12 WIDMER WW, 1991
Improvements in the quantitation of limonin in Citrus juice by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. J Agric Food Chem 39(8):1472-1476.

13 HERMAN Z, FONG CH, OU P, HASEGAWA S, 1990
Limonoid glucosides in orange juices by HPLC. J Agric Food Chem 38(9):1860-1861.

14 HOSODA K, NOGUCHI M, KANAYA T, HIGUCHI M, 1990
Studies on the preparation and evaluation of Kijitsu, the immature citrus fruits. III. Relation between diameter of Kijitsu and synephrine content. Yakugaku Zasshi 110(1):82-84.

15 BEZANGER-BEAUQUESNE L, PINKAS M, TORCK M, 1986
Les plantes dans la thérapeutique moderne. 2 éd. Paris, France: Ed. Maloine.

16 WAGNER H, BLADT S, MUNZING-VASITIAN K, 1975
Thin-layer chromatography of bitter principle drugs. Pharm-Ztg 120:1262.

17 DUKE JA, ATCHLEY AA, 1986
Handbook of proximate analysis tables of higher plants. Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press, p45.

18 BOUCOURT E, MARTINEZ M J, MOREJON Z, 2010
Evaluación de la actividad antimicrobiana del zumo del fruto fresco de Citrus aurantium L. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas “Dr. Salvador Allende”, C. Habana, Cuba.

19 MORON FJ, MOREJON Z, GARCIA AI, LOPEZ M, BOUCOURT E, BACALLAO Y, FUENTES V, 2008
Acción analgésica de la decocción 30% de hojas frescas de Citrus aurantium L. (naranja agria) en ratones. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas “Dr. Salvador Allende”, Ciudad de La Habana, Cuba.

20 AVIRUTANT W, PONGPAL A, 1983
The antimicrobial activity of some Thai flowers and plants. Mahidol Univ J Pharm Sci 10(3):81-86.

21 CACERES A, GIRON LM, ALVARADO SR, TORRES MF, 1987
Screening of antimicrobial activity of plants popularly used in Guatemala for the treatment of dermatomucosal diseases. J Ethnopharmacol 20(3):223-237.

22 KIM DH, SONG MJ, BAE EA, HAN MJ, 2000
Inhibitory effect of herbal medicines on rotavirus infectivity. Biol Pharm Bull 23(3):356-358.

23 SANKAWA U, 1980
Screening of bioactive compounds in oriental medicinal drugs. Korean J Pharmacog 11:125-132.

24 KINOSHITA T, SAMESHIMA M, SANKAWA U, 1979
Isolation of a sympathomimetic substance from Chinese medicinal drugs originated from Citrus sp. Shoyakugaku Zassmi 33:146-149.

25 YOO JS, JUNG JS, LEE TH, SON KH, SUH HW, SONG DK, KIM YH, 1995
Inhibitory effects of extracts from traditional herbal drugs on 5-hydroxytryptophan-induced diarrhea in mice. Korean J Pharmacog 26(4):355-359.

26 FORSTER HB, NIKLAS H, LUTZ S, 1980
Antispasmodic effects of some medicinal plants. Planta Med 40(4):309-319.

27 IWAMA H, AMAGAYA S, OGIHARA Y, 1986
Effects of five kampohozais on the mitogenic activity of lipopolysaccharide, concanavalin A, phorbol myristate acetate and phytohemagglutinin in vivo. J Ethnopharmacol 18(2):193-204.

28 HIRANO H, TAKASE H, YAMAMOTO K, YANASE T, ABE K, SAITO Y, 1997
The anti-ulcer effects of Aurantii Fructus Immaturus, Aurantii Fructus and the principles in Aurantii Fructus Immaturus. Nat Med 51(3):190-193.

29 AZUMA S, YADA Y, IMOKAWA G, TAZAKI S, SHINHO T, 1996
Skin-lightening cosmetics containing plant extracts and ascorbic acid or placenta extracts. Patent-Japan Kokai Tokyo Koho-08 208,451.

30 AMEER B, WEINTRAUB RA, JOHNSON JV, YOST RA, ROUSEFF RL, 1996
Flavonone absorption after naringin, hesperidin, and Citrus administration. Clin Pharmacol Ther 60(1):34-40.

31 HARTMAN JG, LIMBIRD ILE, Eds., 1996
Goodman & Gilman las bases farmacológicas de la Terapéutica, 9^a edición. México, México: McGraw-Hill Editorial. p1670-1671.

32 MARTINEZ MJ, MOREJON Z, LOPEZ M, BOUCOURT E, FUENTES V, MORON F, 2005
Clases tóxicas agudas (CTA) de una infusión de corteza de fruto fresco de Citrus aurantium L. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas “Dr. Salvador Allende”, La Habana, Cuba.

33 MARTINEZ MJ, MOREJON Z, LOPEZ M, BOUCOURT E, FUENTES V, MORON F, 2005
Clases tóxicas agudas (CTA) de zumo de fruto fresco de Citrus aurantium L. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas “Dr. Salvador Allende”, La Habana, Cuba.

34 GARCIA-GONZALEZ M, FALLAS LV, 2005
Toxicidad aguda dosis repetida, en ratones, del extracto acuoso (decocción) de las hojas frescas de Citrus aurantium . Informe TRAMIL. PRONAPLAMED. Depto de Fisiología, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica.

35 PAZOS L, COTO T, CAIZA F, 2009 Irritación ocular, en conejos, del jugo fresco del fruto de Citrus aurantium. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio de Ensayos Biológicos, LEBi, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica.

36 PENZAK SR, JANN MW, COLD JA, HON YY, DESAI HD, GURLEY BJ, 2001Seville (sour) orange juice: synephrine content and cardiovascular effects in normotensive adults. J Clin Pharmacol 41(10):1059-1063.

37 PARRA AL, YHEBRA RS, SARDINAS IG, BUELA LI, 2001Comparative study of the assay of Artemia salina L. and the estimate of the medium lethal dose (LD₅₀ value) in mice, to determine oral acute toxicity of plant extracts. Phytomedicine 8(5):395-400.

38 CALAPAI G, FIRENZUOLI F, SAITTA A, SQUADRITO F, ARLOTTA MR, COSTANTINO G, INFERRERA G, 1999Antiobesity and cardiovascular toxic effects of Citrus aurantium extracts in the rat: a preliminary report. Fitoterapia 70(6):586-592.

39 HOU YC, HSIU SL, TSAO CW, WANG YH, CHAO PD, 2000
Acute intoxication of cyclosporin caused by coadministration of decoctions of the fruits of Citrus aurantium and the pericarps of Citrus grandis. Planta Med 66(7):653-655.

40 SATO A, 1989
Studies on anti-tumor activity of crude drugs. I. The effects of aqueous extracts of some crude drugs in short term screening test. Yakugaku Zasshi 109(6):407-423.

41 YAMAMOTO H, MIZUTANI T, NOMURA H, 1982
Studies on the mutagenicity of crude drug extracts. I. Yakugaku Zasshi 102(6):596-601.

42 MORIMOTO I, WATANABE F, OSAWA T, OKITSU T, KADA T, 1982
Mutagenicity screening of crude drugs with Bacillus subtilis REC-assay and Salmonella microsome reversion assay. Mutat Res 97(2):81-102.

43 STOHS SJ, PREUSS HG, 2010
The safety of bitter orange (Citrus aurantium) and p-synephrine. HerbalGram 89:34-39.

44 CANIGUERAL S, VILA R, RISCO E, PEREZ F, PORTILLO A, FREIXA B, MILO B, VANACLOCHA B, RIOS JL, MORALES MA, ALONSO JR, BACHILLER LI, PERIS JB, STUBING G, 2002
Citrus aurantium. Vademecum de Fitoterapia, Editorial Masson, Barcelona, España, Jul.20,2002. URL: www.masson.es/book/fitoterapia.html

Coffea arabica

(In territories with significant traditional TRAMIL use)

Dominican Republic:

café

Haiti:

kafé

Significant uses found by the TRAMIL surveys

ripe leaf, decoction, orally²

Recommendations Preparation and Dosage References

According to available information:

Use for asthma and pneumonia, asthenia and weakness is classified as REC, based on the significant traditional use documented in the TRAMIL surveys, toxicity studies, scientific validation, and available published scientific information.

Due to the health risks involved with asthma and pneumonia, an initial medical evaluation is recommended. The use of this resource can be considered complementary to medical treatment, unless it is contraindicated.

Should there be a notable worsening of the patient’s condition, or should symptoms last more than 2 days, seek medical attention.

Use for hepatitis, intestinal worms and vertigo is classified as REC, based on the significant traditional use documented in the TRAMIL surveys and toxicity studies.

Should there be a notable worsening of the patient’s condition, or should jaundice or vertigo last more than 5 days, seek medical attention.

Use for after anger and poor blood quality is classified as REC, based on the significant traditional use (OMS/WHO)⁴ documented in the TRAMIL surveys and toxicity studies.

Not for use during pregnancy, during lactation or by children under 5 years old.

Not for use if gastritis, peptic ulcer and hyperthyroidism are present.

The roasted and ground seeds of Coffea arabica are widely used for human consumption.

For asthma:

Prepare a decoction with 15-20 grams (2 hearts) of fresh leaf 1/2 liter (2 cups) of water, boil for at least 10 minutes in covered pot. Leave to cool down, filter and drink 1 cup 3 times a day.

For pneumonia:

Prepare a decoction with 16 grams of roasted and ground seeds in 1.5 liter (6 cups) of water, boil for at least 10 minutes. Filter, leave to cool down and drink one and a half cup 3 times a day.

To obtain beneficial effects on pneumonia and even bronchodilator effects, take one and a half cup of the traditional coffee preparation made with roasted and ground seed³¹.

For after anger, hepatitis, poor blood quality, intestinal parasites and vertigo:

There is no available information establishing a means of preparation and dosage other than that referred to by traditional use.

1 WENIGER B, ROUZIER M, 1986
Enquête TRAMIL. Service Oecuménique d'Entraide SOE, Port au Prince, Haïti.

2 GERMOSEN-ROBINEAU L, GERONIMO M, AMPARO C, 1984
Encuesta TRAMIL. enda-caribe, Santo Domingo, Rep. Dominicana.

3 WENIGER B, 1987-88
Encuesta TRAMIL. enda-caribe, Santo Domingo, Rep. Dominicana.

4 QUILEZ AM, GARCIA D, SAENZ T, 2009
Uso racional de medicamentos a base de plantas. Guía de interacciones entre fitomedicamentos y fármacos de síntesis. Sevilla, España: 1a Edición Fundación Farmacéutica Avenzoar.

5 MIYAKE T, SHIBAMOTO T, 1993
Quantitative analysis of acetaldehyde in foods and beverages. J Agric Food Chem 41(11):1968-1970.

6 KASAI H, KUMENO K, AMAIZUMI Z, NISHIMURA S, NAGAO M, FUJITA Y, SUGIMURA T, NUKAYA H, KOSUGE T, 1982
Mutagenicity of methylglyoxal in coffee. Jpn J Cancer Res (GANN) 73:681-683.

7 NEURATH GB, DUNGER M, PEIN FG, AMBROSIUS D, SCHREIBER O, 1977
Primary and secondary amines in the human environment. Food Cosmet Toxicol 15(4):275-282.

8 AMORIM HV, CORTEZ JG, 1973
Methods of organic analysis of coffee. II. Comparison of methods of caffeine determination in green coffee. An Esc Super Agr Luiz De Queiroz Univ Sao Paulo 30:281.

9 DEISINGER PJ, HILL TS, ENGLISH JC, 1996
Human exposure to naturally occurring hydroquinone. J Toxicol Environ Health 47(1):31-46.

10 NISHINA A, KAJISHIMA F, MATSUNAGA M, TEZUKA H, INATOMI H, OSAWA T, 1994
Antimicrobial substance, 3',4'-dihydroxyacetophenone, in coffee residue. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 58(2):293-296.

11 AESCHBACH R, KUSY A, MAIER HG, 1982
Diterpenes of coffee. I. Atractyligenin. Z Lebensm-Unters Forsch 175(5):337-341.

12 GROSS G, JACCAUD E, HUGGETT AC, 1997
Analysis of the content of the diterpenes cafestol and kahweol in coffee brews. Food Chem Toxicol 35(6):547-554.

13 DUPLATRE A, TISSE C, ESTIENNE J, 1984
Identification of arabica and robusta [coffee] species by studying the sterol fraction. Ann Falsif Expert Chim Toxicol 77(828):259-270.

14 ANDRADE PB, LEITAO R, SEABRA RM, OLIVEIRA MB, FERREIRA MA, 1997
Development of an HPLC/diode-array detector method for simultaneous determination of seven hydroxy-cinnamic acids in green coffee. J Liq Chromatogr Relat Technol 20(13):2023-2030.

15 SONDHEIMER E, 1958
On the distribution of caffeic acid and the chlorogenic acid isomers in plants. Arch Biochem Biophys 74(1):131-138.

16 MEISSNER W, PODKOWINSKA H, WALKOWSKI A, 1974
Determination of chlorogenic acids in green coffee. Zesz Nauk Akad Ekon Poznaniu Ser 1(58):71.

17 OKUDA T, HATANO T, AGATA I, NISHIBE S, KIMURA K, 1986
Tannins in Artemisia montana, A. princeps and related species of plant. Yakugaku Zasshi 106(10):894-899.

18 HAGGAG MY, 1975
A study of the lipid content of Coffea arabica L. seeds. Pharmazie 30(6):409.

19 MAZAAFERA P, 1991
Trigonelline in coffee. Phytochemistry 30(7):2309-2310.

20 TSUJI S, SHIBATA T, OHARA K, OKADA N, ITO Y, 1991
Factors affecting the formation of hydrogen peroxide in coffee. Shokuhin Eiseigaku Zasshi 32(6):504-512.

21 STOFFELSMA J, SIPMA G, KETTENES DK, PYPKER J, 1968
New volatile components of roasted coffee. J Agric Food Chem 16(6):1000.

22 SPIRO M, 1997
Coffee, tea and chemistry. Chem Rev 6(5):11-15.

23 KOENIG WA, RAHN W, VETTER R, 1980
Identify and quantify emetic active constituents in roast coffee. Colloq Sci Int Café [C.R.] 9:145-149.

24 HOFMANN E, SCHLEE D, REINBOTHE H, 1969
On the occurrence and distribution of allantoin in Boraginaceae. Flora Abt A Physiol Biochem (Jena) 159:510-518.

25 MOLINA MR, DE LA FUENTE G, BATTEN MA, BRESSANI R, 1974
Decaffeination. A process to detoxify coffee pulp. J Agric Food Chem 22(6):1055.

26 KOLLING-SPEER I, SPEER K, 1997
Diterpenes in coffee leaves. Colloq Sci Int Café [C.R.] 17(15):1-154.

27 WALLER GR, JURZYSTE M, KARNS TKB, GENO PW, 1991
Isolation and identification of ursolic acid from Coffea arabica L. (coffee) leaves. Colloq Sci Int Cafe [C.R.] 14:245-247.

28 HIGUCHI K, SUZUKI T, ASHIHARA H, 1995
Pipecolic acid from the developing fruits (pericarp and seeds) of Coffea arabica and Camellia sinensis. Colloq Sci Int Café [C.R.] 16:389-395.

29 GONZALEZ J, NORIEGA R, SANDOVAL R, 1975
Contribution to the study of flavonoids of coffee tree (Coffea) leaves. Rev Colomb Quim 5:85.

30 CHOU C, WALLER G, 1980
Isolation and identification by mass spectrometry of phytotoxins in Coffea arabica. Bot Bull Acad Sinica (Taiwan) 21(1):25-34.

31 SERAFIN WE, 1996
Drugs used in the treatment of asthma. In: Hardman JG, Gilman AG, Limbird LE Eds. Goodman & Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 9^th ed. New York, USA: The McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing, International Edition. p672-679.

32 DUKE JA, ATCHLEY AA, 1986
Handbook of proximate analysis tables of higher plants. Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press. p47.

33 CAMBAR P, CANALES M, CASTRO E, CASTRO C, MEJIA A, MEDINA F, LAGOS K, AGUILAR J, 1996
Efectos respiratorios y cardiovasculares de los extractos acuosos de las hojas de Coffea arabica L. en conejos. Informe TRAMIL. Unidad de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras UNAH, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.

34 GARCIA M, Coto MT, González CS, Pazos L, 1998
Actividad bronquial del extracto acuoso de hoja fresca de Coffea arabica. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio de Ensayos Biológicos LEBi, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica.

35 CAMBAR P, CANALES M, GAMES V, CASTRO E, MEJIA A, CASTRO C, 1996
Efectos de los extractos acuosos de las hojas de Coffea arabica L. en la producción de úlceras gástricas por ligadura del píloro en ratas. Informe TRAMIL. Unidad de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras UNAH, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.

36 DAGLIA M, CUZZONI MT, DACARRO C, 1994
Antibacterial activity of coffee. J Agric Food Chem 42(10):2270-2272.

37 TODA M, OKUBO S, HIYOSHI R, SHIMAMURA T, 1989
The bactericidal activity of tea and coffee. Lett Appl Microbiol 8(4):123-125.

38 KOLEY J, KOLEY BN, MAITRA SR, 1973
Effect of drinking tea, coffee and caffeine on work performance. Indian J Physiol Allied Sci 27:96.

39 ESTLE C, 1982
Caffeine psychotrope agents. Berlin, Germany: Springer verlag, 17:369-389.

40 CURATOLO PW, ROBERTSON D, 1983
The health consequences of caffeine. Ann Intern Med 98(5):641-653.

41 GREDEN JF, 1974
Anxiety of caffeinism. A diagnostic dilemma. Am J Psychiatry 131:1089-1092.

42 REY H, 1979
Effet d'un gel de caféine par voie cutanée sur la lipolyse locale. Thèse doctorat Médecine, Bordeaux, France.

43 THIERMAM-DUFFAUD D, 1983
Le café augmente-t-il la cholestérolémie? La Presse Médicale 12(34):2062.

44 DEBAS HT, COHEN MM, HOLUBITSKY IB, HARRISON RC, 1971
Caffeine simulated gastric and pepsine secretion: dose-response studies. Scand J Gastroenterol 6(5):453-457.

45 WRIGHT LF, GIBSON RG, HIRSCHOWITZ RI, 1977
Lack of caffeine stimulation of gastric secretion release in man. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 154(4):538-539.

46 MCARTHUR K, HOGAN D, ISENBERG JI, 1982
Relative stimulatory effects of commonly ingested beverages on gastric secretion in human. Gastroenterology 83(1/2):199-203.

47 GARCIA M, Coto MT, González CS, Pazos L, 1998
Toxicidad aguda en ratones, del extracto acuoso de hojas frescas de Coffea arabica. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio de Ensayos Biológicos LEBI, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica.

48 STADLER RH, TURESKY RJ, MULLER O, MARKOVIC J, LEONG-MORGENTHALER PM, 1994
The inhibitory effects of coffee on radical-mediated oxidation and mutagenicity. Mutat Res 308(2):177-190.

49 STICH HF, ROSIN MP, BRYSON L, 1982
Inhibition of mutagenicity of a model nitrosation reaction by naturally occurring phenolics, coffee and tea. Mutat Res 95(2-3):119-128.

50 OBANA H, NAKAMURA SI, TANAKA RI, 1986
Suppressive effects of coffee on the SOS responses induced by UV and chemical mutagens. Mutat Res 175(2):47-50.

51 FUJITA FY, WAKABAYASHI K, NAGAO M, SUGIMURA T, 1985
Characteristics of major mutagenicity of instant coffee. Mutat Res 142(4):145-148.

52 WURZNER HP, LINDSTROM E, VUATAZ L, LUGINBUHL H, 1977
A 2-year feeding study of instant coffees in rats. I. Body weight, food comsumption, hematological parameters and plasma chemistry. Food Cosmet Toxicol 15(1):7-16.

53 NOLEN GA, 1981
The effect of brewed and instant coffee on reproduction and teratogenesis in the rat. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 58(2):171-183.

54 ABRAHAM SK, 1995
Inhibitory effects of coffee on transplacental genotoxicity in mice. Mutat Res 347(1):45-52.

55 WURZNER HP, LINDSTROM E, VUATAZ L, LUGINBUHL H, 1977
A 2-year feeding study of instant coffees in rats. II. Incidence and types of neoplasms. Food Cosmet Toxicol 15(4):289-296.

56 MURPHY SJ, BENJAMIN CP, 1981
The effects of coffee on mouse development. Microbiol Lett 17:91-100.

57 NAGASAWA H, YASUDA M, SAKAMOTO S, INATOMI H, 1995
Protection by coffee cherry against spontaneous mammary tumour development in mice. Anticancer Res 15(1):141-146.

58 HASEGAWA R, ITO N, 1992
Liver medium-term bioassay in rats for screening of carcinogens and modifying factors in hepatocarcinogenesis. Food Chem Toxicol 30(11):979-992.

59 KLEEMOLA P, JOUSILAHTI P, PIETINEN P, VARTIAINEN E, TUOMILEHTO J, 2000
Coffee consumption and the risk of coronary heart disease and death. Arch Intern Med 160(22):3393-3400.

60 WILLETT WC, STAMPFER MJ, MANSON JE, COLDITZ GA, ROSNER BA, SPEIZER RE, HENNEKENS CH, 1996
Coffee consumption and coronary heart disease in women. J Amer Med Assoc 275(6):458-462.

61 TAVANI A, PREGNOLATO A, LA VECCHIA C, NEGRI E, TALAMINI R, FRANCESCHI S, 1997
Coffee and tea intake and risk of cancers of the colon and rectum: a study of 3,530 cases and 7,057 controls. Int J Cancer 73(2):193-197.

62 BARON JA, GREENBERG ER, HAILE R, MANDEL J, SANDLER RS, MOTT L, 1997
Coffee and tea and the risk of recurrent colorectal adenomas. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 6(1):7-10.

63 LUBIN F, RON E, WAX Y, MODAN B, 1985
Coffee and methylxanthines and breast cancer: a case-control study. J Natl Cancer Inst 74(3):569-573.

64 WILLIAMS MA, MONSON RR, GOLDMAN MB, MITTENDORF R, 1990
Coffee and delayed conception. Lancet 335(8705):1603.

65 PIRACCINI BM, BARDAZZI F, VINCENZI C, TARDIO MP, 1990
Occupational contact dermatitis due to coffee. Contact Dermatitis 23(2):114.

66 NISHIBE Y, TOMONO N, HIRASAWA H, OKADA T, 1996
Skin-lightening cosmetics containing extracts of Coffea arabica seeds. Patent-Japan Kokai Tokkyo Koho-08 92,057.

Dysphania ambrosioides

(In territories with significant traditional TRAMIL use)

Mexico:

apazote
epazote

Guatemala:

apazote
epazote

Honduras:

apazote
epazote

Dominican Republic:

apazote, epazote

Haiti:

feuilles à vers
simen-kontra

Martinique:

herbe à vers
simen-kontra
zèb avè

Colombia:

paico
yerba santa

Panama:

paico

Venezuela:

pazote

Guadeloupe:

simen-kontra

Trinidad and Tobago:

worm grass

Dominica:

wormweed

Significant uses found by the TRAMIL surveys

aerial parts, infusion or decoction, orally^2,5-^13,49-50,52

Recommendations Preparation and Dosage References

According to published and other information:

Use for diarrhea, stomach pain and intestinal parasites, is classified as REC, based on the significant traditional use documented in the TRAMIL surveys, and on available published scientific information.

In no case should the specified manner of preparation and dosage be altered.

Should there be a notable worsening of the patient’s condition, or should the diarrhea or stomach pain last more than 3 days, or more than 2 days in children over 5 years old, medical attention should be sought.

For diarrhea, this resource is considered complementary to oral re-hydration therapy.

Use for diarrhea, stomach pain and intestinal parasites is recommended only when disorder is caused by ascaris, pinworms and hookworms; not for other types of diarrhoea, stomach pain or other intestinal parasites.

Use is contraindicated in individuals with hepatic disorders, renal insufficiency¹⁴, weakened individuals and the elderly.

Not for use by women during pregnancy, as it may be abortifacient, or during breast feeding or by children under 5 years old.

Use for skin ulcer is classified as REC, based on the significant traditional use documented in the TRAMIL surveys and skin toxicity assays.

Should there be a notable worsening of the patient’s condition, or should the skin ulcer last more than 5 days, medical attention should be sought for.

In topical application, strict hygiene measures should be observed in order to avoid contamination or additional infection.

For intestinal parasites, diarrhea and stomach pain caused by parasites:

prepare a decoction or infusion with 7 grams of aerial parts (leaf, flower, stem) in 300 mL (more than 1 cup) of water. For decoction, boil for at least 10 minutes in a covered pot; for infusion, add boiling water to 7 grams of aerial parts, cover and leave to cool down during 10 minutes. Strain and drink 1 cup (250 mL) for adults, 1/2 cup (125 mL) for people weighing 35 kg, and 1/3 cup (80 mL) for children over 5 years. Drink once a day only for 3 consecutive days⁴⁶ and do not repeat treatment within six months.

Taking a saline laxative is recommended (e.g. magnesium sulfate) after the last intake; however, no oily purgatives should be taken¹⁴.

For skin ulcer:

Wash the injury with purified water and soap. Wash the aerial plant parts properly, press or crush, and apply to affected area. Cover with a clean cloth and replace twice a day.

1 GIRÓN L, 1988
Encuesta TRAMIL (Costa atlántica). Centro Mesoamericano de Tecnología CEMAT, Guatemala, Guatemala.

2 DELENS M, 1990-92
Encuesta TRAMIL. Centro de Estudios Sociales y Acción Popular CESAP, Caracas, Venezuela.

3 CHARLES C, 1988
TRAMIL survey. Movement for Cultural Awareness MCA, Roseau, Dominica.

4 WENIGER B, 1987-88
Encuesta TRAMIL. enda-caribe, Santo Domingo, Rep. Dominicana.

5 HERRERA J, 1994
Encuesta TRAMIL (Costa atlántica). Laboratorio de fitofarmacología, Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Salud, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia.

6 MÉNDEZ M, MEDINA ML, DURÁN R, 1996
Encuesta TRAMIL en Quintana Roo. Unidad de recursos naturales, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán CICY, Mérida, México.

7 WENIGER B, ROUZIER M, 1986
Enquête TRAMIL. Service Oecuménique d'Entraide SOE, Port au Prince, Haïti.

8 LAGOS-WITTE S, 1988-89, 1996
Encuesta TRAMIL. Laboratorio de Histología Vegetal y Etnobotánica, Departamento de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras UNAH, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.

9 LONGUEFOSSE JL, NOSSIN E, 1990-95
Enquête TRAMIL. Association pour la valorisation des plantes médicinales de la Caraïbe AVPMC, Fort de France, Martinique.

10 SOTOMAYOR U, RUEDA R, 1990
Encuesta TRAMIL. Centro nacional de la medicina popular tradicional CNMPT, Ministerio de Salud, Estelí, Nicaragua.

11 SOLÍS PN, ESPINOSA A, DE GRACIA J, MARTÍNEZ L, GUPTA MP, 2003
Encuesta TRAMIL (Ngöbe-Buglé). Centro de Investigaciones Farmacognósticas de la Flora Panameña, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Panamá, Panamá, Panamá.

12 SOLÍS PN, ESPINOSA A, DE GRACIA J, MARTÍNEZ L, GUPTA MP, 2003
Encuesta TRAMIL (Emberá-Wounaann). Centro de Investigaciones Farmacognósticas de la Flora Panameña, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Panamá, Panamá, Panamá.

13 GÓMEZ H, GAITAN R, DÍAZ F, 2003
Encuesta TRAMIL (Norte del departamento de Bolívar). Grupo de Productos Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas. Universidad de Cartagena, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia.

14 DELAIGUE J, 2005
TRAMIL survey. UAG & PRDI, Tobago House of Assembly, Scarborough, Tobago.

15 ZAMBRANO LE, 2007
Encuesta TRAMIL en Guareguare, Miranda. UCV, Caracas, Venezuela.

16 BOULOGNE I, 2009
Enquête TRAMIL, (Terre-de-Bas et Terre-de-Haut) Les Saintes, UAG, Guadeloupe. (FWI).

17 PICKING D, MITCHELL S, DELGODA R, YOUNGER N, 2011
TRAMIL survey. Natural Products Institute, The Biotechnology Centre & Tropical Metabolic Research Institute, University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica.

18 CANIGUERAL S, VILA R, RISCO E, PÉREZ F, PORTILLO A, FREIXA B, MILO B, VANACLOCHA B, RIOS JL, MORÁLES MA, ALONSO JR, BACHILLER LI, PERIS JB, STUBING G, 2002
Quenopodio. Vademecum de Fitoterapia, Barcelona, España, Editorial Masson. Nov.20,2003. URL: www.masson.es/book/fitoterapia.html

19 BOURGEOIS P, JOSEPH H, SAVARY H, 1989
Détermination d'huiles essentielles et dosage de l'ascaridole dans Chenopodium ambrosioides. Rapport TRAMIL. Laboratoire de phytochimie, Faculté des Sciences, Université des Antilles et de la Guyane UAG, Pointe à Pitre, Guadeloupe.

20 TAKEMOTO T, NAKAJIMA T, 1957
Study of the essential oils of Chenopodium ambrosioides. V. On the structure of aritasone. Yakugaru Zasshi 77:1157-1158.

21 BAUER L, BRASIL E, SILVA GA, 1973
Essential oils of Chenopodium ambrosioides and Schinus terebenthifolia from Rio Grande do Sul. Rev Brasil Farm 54:240.

22 MONZOTE L, STAMBERG W, STANIEK K, GILLE L, 2009
Oxic effects of carvacrol, caryophyllene oxide, and ascaridole from essential oil of Chenopodium ambrosioides on mitochondria. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 240(3):337-347.

23 CHU SS, FENG HU J, LIU ZL, 2011
Composition of essential oil of Chinese Chenopodium ambrosioides and insecticidal activity against maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais. Pest Manag Sci 67(6):714-718.

24 JARAMILLO B, DUARTE E, DELGADO W, 2012
Bioactividad del aceite esencial de Chenopodium ambrosioides colombiano/ Bioactivity of essential oil from Colombian Chenopodium ambrosioides. Rev Cuba Plantas Med 17(1):54-64.

25 JARDIM CM, JHAM GN, DHINGRA OD, FREIRE MM, 2008
Composition and antifungal activity of the essential oil of the Brazilian Chenopodium ambrosioides L. J Chem Ecol 34(9):1213-1218.

26 ARISAWA M, MINABE N, SAEKI R, TAKAKUWA T, NAKAOKI T, 1971
Studies on unutilized resources. V. The components of the flavonoids in Chenopodium genus plants. Yagugaku Zasshi 91:522.

27 JAIN N, LAM MS, KAMIL M, ILYAS M, NIWA M, SAKAE A, 1990
Two flavonol glycosides from Chenopodium ambrosioides. Phytochemistry 29(12):3988-3991.

28 DUKE JA, ATCHLEY AA, 1986
Handbook of proximate analysis tables of higher plants. Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press. p41.

29 CAMBAR P, 1988
Prevención de la producción de úlceras gástricas experimentales por algunos extractos de plantas. Informe TRAMIL. Unidad de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.

30 DESTA B, 1993
Ethiopian traditional herbal drugs. Part II: Antimicrobial activity of 63 medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol 39(2):129-139.

31 ROSS SA, EL-KELTAWI NE, MEGALLA SE, 1980
Antimicrobial activity of some Egyptian aromatic plants. Fitoterapia 51:201-205.

32 BUTZ LN, LA LANDE JR, 1937
Antihelmintics II. A comparison of certain ozonides, Chenopodium oil and diheptanol peroxide. J Am Pharm Assoc 26:114.

33 BLISS AR, 1925
A pharmacodynamic study on the antihelmintic properties of two oils of Chenopodium. J Am Pharm Assoc 14:93.

34 FERNAN-NUÑEZ M, 1927
A contribution of helmintic therapy. J Amer Med Assoc 88:903.

35 FEROZ H, KHARE AK, SRIVASTAVA MC, 1982
Review of scientific studies on anthelmintics from plants. J Sci Res Pl Med 3(1):6-12.

36 KISHORE N, DUBEY NK, SINGH SK, DIXIT SN, 1981
Fungitoxicity of some volatile natural products against human pathogenic fungi. Indian Perf 25(3/4):1-3.

37 KLIKS MM, 1985
Studies on the traditional herbal antihelmintic Chenopodium ambrosioides L.: ethnopharmacological evaluation and clinical field trials. Soc Sci Med 21(8):879-886.

38 LOPEZ DE GUIMARAES D, NEYRA LLANOS RS, ROMERO ACEVEDO JH, 2001
Ascariasis; comparación de la eficacia terapéutica entre paico y albendazol en niños de Huaraz. Rev Gastroenterol Peru 21(3):212-219.

39 GONZÁLEZ A, 1990
Evaluación de la toxicidad dérmica de plantas TRAMIL en conejos. Centro Nacional de Salud Animal, La Habana, Cuba. TRAMIL III, La Habana, Cuba, MINSAP/enda-caribe.

40 LÓPEZ M, MARTÍNEZ MJ, MOREJÓN Z, BOUCOURT E, FERRADA C, FUENTES V, MORÓN F, 2005
Irritabilidad dérmica primaria de una decocción de hoja fresca de Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina “Dr. Salvador Allende”, Cerro, C. Habana, Cuba.

41 LÓPEZ M, MARTÍNEZ MJ, MOREJÓN Z, BOUCOURT E, FERRADA C, FUENTES V, MORÓN F, 2005
Irritabilidad dérmica primaria hoja fresca machacada de Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina “Dr. Salvador Allende”, Cerro, C. Habana, Cuba.

42 PAZOS L, COTO T, CAIZA F, 2009
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Ascaridole-less infusions of Chenopodium ambrosioides contain a nematocide(s) that is(are) not toxic to mammalian smooth muscle. J Ethnopharmacol 92(2-3):215-221.

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Dysphania ambrosioides

(In territories with significant traditional TRAMIL use)

Mexico:

apazote
epazote

Guatemala:

apazote
epazote

Honduras:

apazote
epazote

Dominican Republic:

apazote, epazote

Haiti:

feuilles à vers
simen-kontra

Martinique:

herbe à vers
simen-kontra
zèb avè

Colombia:

paico
yerba santa

Panama:

paico

Venezuela:

pazote

Guadeloupe:

simen-kontra

Trinidad and Tobago:

worm grass

Dominica:

wormweed