Zingiber officinale

Scientific name: Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Botanical family: ZINGIBERACEAE

Vernacular names

(In territories with significant traditional TRAMIL use)

Saint Lucia:

ginger

Antigua and Barbuda:

ginger

Barbados:

ginger

Dominica:

ginger

Puerto Rico:

ginger
jengibre

St Vincent and Grenadines:

ginger

Guatemala:

jengibre

Honduras:

jengibre

Venezuela:

jengibre

Costa Rica:

jengibre

Other vernacular names

Antigua and Barbuda:

Ginger

Barbados:

Ginger

St Vincent and Grenadines:

Ginger

Dominica:

Ginger o gagam
jengibre

Puerto Rico:

Jengibre

Costa Rica:

Jengibre

Haiti:

Jenjanm

Venezuela:

Jenjibre

Botanical description

Herb 30-100 cm high, with robust, branched, rhizome near the surface of the soil. Leaves, 5-25 x 1-3 cm, linear-lanceolate, sessile, with acute apex and cuneate base, glabrous; inflorescence cylindrical, spikes 4-7 x 1.5-2.5 cm, corolla yellowish-green; flower produced in the axil of yellowish bracts; fruit a three-valved capsule with small black arillate seeds.

Voucher(s)

Faujour,4,BAR

González,37,MAPR

Girón,286,CFEH

Ochoa,315,HPMHV

Gimenez,275697-25,VEN

Balland,42,HVB

diarrhoea

rhizome, decoction, orally⁶

flatulence

rhizome, decoction, orally^9,11-12

vomiting

rhizome, decoction, orally^9,11

fever

rhizome, decoction, orally^1,3,9-11

flu

rhizome, decoction, orally^1,3-4

indigestion

rhizome, decoction, orally¹⁰

asthma

rhizome, decoction, orally¹

catarrh

rhizome, decoction, orally²

stomach pain

rhizome, decoction, orally^3,7

cough

rhizome, decoction, orally³

colds

rhizome, decoction, orally⁵

The rhizome of Zingiber officinale is widely used for human consumption and is an industrial source of essential oil.

According to ESCOP, ginger rhizome has been prescribed for the prevention of nausea and vomiting resulting from motion sickness (sea sickness) and as a post-surgical anti-emetic in minor surgeries. The effectiveness of both indications has been confirmed by clinical assays. The indications approved by Commission E are: dyspepsia and prevention of the gastrointestinal symptoms of motion sickness⁶⁸.

For asthma, catarrh, flu, cold, stomach pain, fever, indigestion, cough, whooping cough, vomiting and flatulence:

Prepare a decoction with 5 grams of fresh rhizome in 250 mL (1 cup) of water. Boil for at least 10 minutes in a covered pot, leave to cool down and drink 2 to 4 times a day.

Any medicinal preparation must be preserved cold and used within the 24 hours.

According to published and other information:

Uses for catarrh, flu, cold, fever, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, flatulence and indigestion are classified as REC, based on the significant traditional use documented in the TRAMIL surveys, toxicity studies and available published scientific information.

Uses for asthma, cough and whooping cough are classified as REC, based on the significant traditional use (OMS/WHO)¹³ documented in the TRAMIL surveys.

Should there be a notable worsening of the patient’s condition, or should stomach pain, fever or vomiting persist for more than 2 days, seek medical attention.

Due to the health risks involved with whooping cough, an initial medical evaluation is recommended. The use of this resource can be considered complementary to medical treatment.

Not for use during lactation or by children under 6 years old¹⁴.

Ginger may increase bioavailability of sulfaguanidine by maximizing its absorption.

Patients who are receiving oral anticoagulants or anti-platelet aggregation treatments should seek the advice of their physician before taking any ginger preparations, due to increased risks of hemorrhage.

It is recommended that patients with gallstones seek the advice of their physician before taking any ginger preparations¹⁵.

TRAMIL Research⁶¹

The hydroalcoholic extract (80%) from the fresh rhizome (3.4% total solids) orally administered to mice at a single incremental dose of 102, 153, 204 and 255mg/kg (mg of dried vegetal material /kg) caused mortality with an LD₅₀ = 224 mg/kg. Adverse clinical signs of distal cyanosis were observed during the first hours after administration, at the highest dose. During the 14 days of observation of the surviving animals, there was neither mortality nor any adverse clinical signs seen. The histological study of the organs of mice given the mean lethal dose assay showed no injuries.

TRAMIL Research⁶²

The hydroalcoholic extract (80%) from the fresh rhizome (3.4% total solids) added to the culture in increasing concentrations (0.08 to 0.204 mg/mL) (total solids/mL) did not show genotoxic effects in the somatic segregation model for Aspergillus nidulans D30.

TRAMIL Research⁶³

The decoction (15 g/L) and subsequent maceration for six hours of the rhizome administered orally at a dosage of 60 mL 2-3 times a day to 61 volunteers for 20 days, and at a dosage of 30 mL away from meals to 13 volunteers for 15 to 30 days did not evidence clinical symptoms of intolerance or rejection.

The LD₅₀ of the aqueous extract by intraperitoneal administration was 178 mg/kg in rats⁶⁴. The LD₅₀ of the hydroalcoholic extract (80%) from the rhizome by oral administration was 3 g/kg in mice⁴⁵. The LD₅₀ of the hydroalcoholic extract (90%) from the rhizome by intraperitoneal administration was 1 g/kg in mice⁴⁶.

The rhizome (20 g/animal) orally administered to dogs did not result in signs of toxicity, and the decoction (1-118 g/animal) orally administered to rabbits did not show toxic effects⁶⁵.

The rhizome has been classified as Generally Regarded as Safe (GRAS) by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a flavoring agent⁶⁶.

Cases of stomach burn have been reported as induced by ginger rhizome. Administer with caution in cases of peptic ulcer⁶⁷.

There is no available information documenting the toxicity of medicinal use in pregnant women.

The rhizome has been extensively studied and contains, among other components, monoterpenes: camphene, geranial, neral¹⁶, 1,8-cineole¹⁷, citronellol¹⁸; sesquiterpenes: bisabolene, ß-eudesmol¹⁹, α-curcumene¹⁶, elemol²⁰, farnesol¹, furanogermenone²²; diterpenes: galanolactone²³, labdane derivatives^24-26;benzenoids: curcumin²⁷ and derivatives^28-29,gingerol and derivatives^28,30, shogaol and derivatives^31-32, zingiberone, zingiberol and related compounds³³; phenylpropanoids: p-coumaric³⁴, iso-eugenol¹⁷; flavonoids: cyanin³⁵; miscellaneous: capsaicin³⁶. Additionally, a large amount of alkanes have been reported¹⁷. The constituents of the essential oil have been extensively studied^36-38.

Proximate analysis of 100 g of rhizome³⁹: calories: 347; water: 9.4%; proteins: 9.1%; fat: 6%; carbohydrates : 70.8%; fiber : 5.9%; ash : 4.8%; calcium : 116 mg; phosphorus : 148 mg; iron : 11.5 mg; sodium : 32 mg; potassium : 1342 mg; carotene : 88 µg; thiamine : 0.05 mg; riboflavin : 0.18 mg; niacin : 5.16 mg.

The hot water rhizome extract (750 µg/mL) in vitro inhibited prostaglandin synthesis in rabbit microsomes⁴⁰. The alcohol-acetone and chloroform extracts in vitro inhibited prostaglandin synthesis^41-42. The rhizome decoction (5 µL) in vitro on platelet cultures inhibited arachidonate, an intermediate product in the metabolism of arachidonic acid⁴³.

The hot water rhizome extract in vitro did not stimulate the migration of isolated macrophages in guinea pigs⁴⁴.

The hydroalcoholic extract (80%) from the rhizome in vitro (500 µg/plate), was active against Bacillus anthracis, B. subtilis, Escherichia coli (7075 and BB strains), Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi (H), Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermis, S. hemolyticus⁴⁵. The hydroalcoholic extract (90%) in vitro (500 µg/ plate) was active against Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis and Streptococcus faecalis⁴⁶.

The aqueous extract from the rhizome (10%) in vitro was inactive against Herpes virus type II, influenza virus type A2, Poliovirus II and V, and Vaccinia⁴⁷.

The dried rhizome in vitro was active against Schistosoma haematobium eggs isolated from samples taken from infected children⁴⁸.

The hydroalcoholic extract (95%) from the dried rhizome in vitro was active against Ascaris lumbricoides⁴⁹.

The aqueous extract from the rhizome showed significant relaxant activity on isolated guinea pig ileum (0.6 mg/mL) and on rat gastric fundus (1 mg/mL)⁵⁰.

The hydroalcoholic extract (80%) from the rhizome orally administered to rats (100 mg/kg) caused antipyretic effects in brewers’ yeast-induced hyperthermia and anti-inflammatory effects in carrageenan-induced paw edema, comparable to equal doses of aspirin⁴⁵. In a model where acetic acid was intraperitoneally injected in rats inducing painful writhing, a 10% analgesic activity compared to aspirin was observed with administration of the extract⁴⁵.

The hydromethanolic extract (50%) in rats (10 g/kg) showed significant analgesic activity in acetic acid-induced writhing, but was inactive at 3 g/kg and at 10 g/kg in the hot plate model⁵¹.

The aqueous (169 mg/kg) and the methanolic (114 mg/kg) extracts orally administered to rabbits inhibited gastric secretions⁵².

The acetone extract from the rhizome (150 mg/kg) and metoclopramide (25 mg/kg) by oral administration in cases of suncus (Suncus murinus) blocked the emesis induced by subcutaneous administration of cyclophosphamide (300 mg/kg) administered after 60 minutes⁵³.

The aqueous extract from the rhizome administered orally to mice caused anti-allergenic effects⁵⁴.

The hydroalcoholic extract (80%) from the rhizome orally administered to rabbits caused hypoglycemia (51.4% decline) 2 hours after treatment and persisted for 4 hours⁴⁵.

The rhizome (940 mg/person), orally taken by 36 male and female volunteers aged 18-20 was more effective against motion sickness than dimenhydrinate⁵⁵. Another study using 1 g/person revealed effects against sea-sickness⁵⁶. In a double-blind clinical test on adults, the rhizome (1 g/person) taken orally revealed no activity on the vestibular or oculomotor system⁵⁷. In another double-blind test with men and women, the rhizome was administered (1 g/person) orally two hours before motion causing nausea and vomiting but it did not show anti-motion sickness effects⁵⁸.

The rhizome powder (250 mg/4 times/day/4 days) significantly reduced pregnancy-related emesis (hyperemesis gravidarum) by 70% in a double-blind random clinical test with 30 pregnant women, compared to the placebo, with no evidence of adverse effects on either the mother or the newborns⁵⁹.

The rhizome (70 g/person) inhibited the synthesis of A₂ thromboxane in humans⁶⁰.

Pharmacopoeia

Ed.2

References

1 DELENS M, 1990 Encuesta TRAMIL en Barlovento, Edo. Miranda de Venezuela. Centro al Servicio de la Acción Popular CESAP, Caracas, Venezuela.

2 BENEDETTI MD, 1994 Encuesta TRAMIL. Universidad de Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico.

3 LAGOS-WITTE S, 1988-89, 1996 Encuesta TRAMIL. Laboratorio de Histología Vegetal y Etnobotánica, Departamento de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras UNAH, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.

4 DELENS M, 1992 Encuesta TRAMIL en los Estados Lara y Sucre de Venezuela. Centro al Servicio de la Acción Popular CESAP, Caracas, Venezuela.

5 OCAMPO R, 1988 Encuesta TRAMIL (Costa atlántica), Instituto de Desarrollo Agrario, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.

6 O'REILLY A, WILSON V, PHILLIP M, JOSEPH O, 1992 TRAMIL survey. Chemistry and Food Technology Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Dunbars, Antigua and Barbuda.

7 GERMOSEN-ROBINEAU L, GERONIMO M, AMPARO C, 1984 Encuesta TRAMIL. enda-caribe, Santo Domingo, Rep. Dominicana.

8 GIRON L, 1988 Encuesta TRAMIL (Costa atlántica). Centro Mesoamericano de Tecnología CEMAT, Guatemala, Guatemala.

9 JEAN-PIERRE L, 1988 TRAMIL survey. St. Lucia national herbarium, Castries, St. Lucia.

10 CHARLES C, 1988 TRAMIL survey. Movement for Cultural Awareness MCA, Roseau, Dominica.

11 FAUJOUR A, MURREY D, CHELTENHAM-CORBIN B, CARRINGTON S, 2003 TRAMIL survey. enda-caribbean, IICA & UAG, Saint Thomas, Barbados.

12 BALLAND V, GLASGOW A, SPRINGER F, GAYMES G, 2004 TRAMIL survey. enda-caribbean, IICA, UAG & U.PARIS XI, Saint Vincent.

13 WHO, 1991 Pautas para la evaluación de medicamentos herbarios WHO/TRM/91.4 (original inglés). Programa de Medicina Tradicional, OMS, Ginebra, Suiza.

14 WHO, 1999 Rhizoma zingiberis. WHO monographs on selected medicinal plants, Volume I. WHO: Geneva, Switzerland. p284.

15 CANIGUERAL S, 2003 Zingiber officinalis. Vademecum de Fitoterapia, Editorial Masson, Barcelona, España, Jul. 30, 2003. URL: http://www.masson.es/book/fitoterapia.html

16 TANABE M, YASUDA M, ADACHI Y, KANOY, 1991 Capillary GC-MS analysis of volatile components in Japanese gingers. Shoyakugaku Zasshi 45(4):321-326.

17 NISHIMURA O, 1995 Identification of the characteristic odorants in fresh rhizomes of ginger (Zingiber oficinale Roscoe) using aroma extract dilution analysis and modified multidimensional gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy. J Agric Food Chem 43(11):2941-2945.

18 SAKAMURA F, OGIHARA K, SUGA T, TANIGUCHI K, TANAKA R, 1986 Volatile constituents of Zingiber officinale rhizomes produced by in vitro shoot tip culture. Phytochemistry 25(6):1333-1335.

19 WU P, KUO MC, HO CT, 1990 Glycosidically bound aroma compounds in ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). J Agric Food Chem 38(7):1553-1555.

20 HAGINIWA J, HARADA M, MORISHITA I, 1963 Pharmacological studies on crude drugs. VII. Properties of essential oil components of aromatics and their pharmacological effect on mouse intestine. Yakugaku Zasshi 83:624.

21 VAN BEEK TA, LELYVELD GP, 1991 Isolation and identification of the five major sesquiterpene hydrocarbons of ginger. Phytochem Anal 2(1):26-34.

22 SHIBA M, MYATA A, OKADA M, WATANABE K, 1986 Antiulcer furanogermenone extraction from ginger. Patent-Japan Kokai Tokkyo Koho-61 227,523.

23 YOSHIKAWA M, HATAKEYAMA S, CHATANI N, NISHINO Y, YAMAHARA J, 1993 Qualitative and quantitative analysis of bioactive principles in Zingiberis Rhizoma by means of high performance liquid chromatography and gas liquid chromatography. On the evaluation of Zingiberis Rhizoma and chemical change of constituents during Zingiberis Rhizoma processing. Yakugaku Zasshi 113(4):307-315.

24 TANABE M, CHEN YD, SAITO KI, KANO Y, 1993 Cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitory component from Zingiber officinale Roscoe. Chem Pharm Bull 41(4):710-713.

25 KANO Y, TANABE M, YASUDA M, 1990 On the evaluation of the preparation of Chinese medicinal prescriptions (V) diterpenes from Japanese ginger "kintoki". Shoyakugaku Zasshi 44(1):55-57.

26 KAWAKISHI S, MORIMITSU Y, OSAWA T, 1994 Chemistry of ginger components and inhibitory factors of the arachidonic acid cascade. Asc Symp Ser 547:244-250.

27 KIKUZAKI H, NAKATANI N, 1993 Antioxidant effects of some ginger constituents. J Food Sci 58(6):1407-1410.

28 KIUCHI F, IWAKAMI S, SHIBUYA M, HANAOKA F, SANKAWA U, 1992 Inhibition of prostaglandin and leukotriene biosynthesis by gingerols and diarylheptanoids. Chem Pharm Bull 40(2):387-391.

29 HARVEY DJ, 1981 Gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric studies of ginger constituents. identification of gingerdiones and new hexahydrocurcumin analogues. J Chromatogr 211(1):75-84.

30 MASADA Y, INOUE T, HASHIMOTO K, FUJIOKA M, UCHINO C, 1974 Studies on the constituents of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) by GC-MS. Yakugaku Zasshi 94(6):735-738.

31 ANON, 1982 Analgesic formulations containing shogaol and gingerol. Patent-Japan Kokai Tokkyo Koho-82 46,914.

32 CHEN CC, ROSEN RT, HO CT, 1986 Chromatographic analyses of isomeric shogaol compounds derived from isolated gingerol compounds of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). J Chromatogr 360:175-184.

33 HARTMAN M, 1971 Chemical composition of certain products from ginger (Zingiber officinale). Zivocisna Vyroba 16(10/11):805-812.

34 SCHULTZ JM, HERRMANN K, 1980 Occurrence of hydroxybenzoic acids and hydroxycinnamic acid in spices. IV. Phenolics of spices. Z Lebensm-Unters Forsch 171:193-199.

35 FU HY, HUANG TC, HO CT, DAUN H, 1993 Characterization of the major anthocyanin in acidified green ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). Zhongguo Nongye Huaxue Huizhi 31(5):587-595.

36 NELSON EK, 1920 Constitution of capsaicin, the pungent principle of ginger. II. J Amer Chem Soc 42:597-599.

37 LIN ZK, HUA YF, 1987 Chemical constituents of the essential oil from Zingiber officinale Roscoe. of Sichuan. You-Ji Hua Hsueh 6:444-448.

38 ERLER J, VOSTROWSKY O, STROBEL H, KNOBLOCH K, 1988 Essential oils from ginger (Zingiber officinalis Roscoe). Z Lebensm-Unters Forsch 186(3):231-234.

39 DUKE JA, ATCHLEY AA, 1986 Handbook of proximate analysis tables of higher plants.Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press. p172.

40 KIUCHI F, SHIBUYA M, KINOSHITA T, SANKAWA U, 1983 Inhibition of prostaglandin biosynthesis by the constituents of medicinal plants. Chem Pharm Bull 31(10):3391-3396.

41 KIUCHI F, SHIBUYA M, SANKAWA U, 1982 Inhibitors of prostaglandin biosynthesis from ginger. Chem Pharm Bull 30(2):754-757.

42 SANKAWA U, 1983 Modulators of arachidonate cascade contained in medicinal plants used in traditional medicine. 3º Congress of the Federation of Asian and Oceanian biochemists, Bangkok, Thailand, p28.

43 SRIVASTAVA KC, 1984 Aqueous extracts of onion, garlic and ginger inhibited platelet aggregation and altered arachidonic acid metabolism. Biomed Biochim Acta 43(8/9):5335-5346.

44 ADACHI I, YASUTA A, MATSUBARA T, UENO M, TERASAWA K, HORIKOSHI I, 1984 Macrophage procoagulant activity. Effects of hot water extracts of several Kanpo-prescriptions on macrophage procoagulant activity, I. Yakugaku Zasshi 104(9):959-965.

45 MASCOLO N, JAIN R, JAIN SC, CAPASSO F, 1989 Ethnopharmacologic investigation of ginger (Zingiber officinale). J Ethnopharmacol 27(1/2):129-140.

46 WOO W, LEE E, HAN B, 1979 Biological evaluation of Korean medicinal plants. III. Arch Pharm Res 2:127-131.

47 MAY G, WILLUHN G, 1978 Antiviral activity of aqueous extracts from medicinal plants in tissue cultures. Arzneim-Forsch 28(1):1-7.

48 ADEWUNMI CO, 1984 Natural products as agents of schistosomiasis control in Nigeria: A review of progress. Int J Crude Drug Res 22(4):161-166.

49 FEROZ H, KHARE AK, SRIVASTAVA MC, 1982 Review of scientific studies on anthelmintics from plants. J Sci Res Pl Med 3:6-12.

50 PANTHONG A, SIVAMOGSTHAM P, 1974 Pharmacological study of the action of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) on the gastrointestinal tract. Chien Mai Med Bull 13(1):41-53.

51 KASAHARA Y, SAITO E, HIKINO H, 1983 Pharmacological actions of Pinellia tubers and Zingiber rhizomes. Shoyakugaku Zasshi 37(1):73-83.

52 SAKAI K, MIYAZAKI Y, YAMANE T, SAITOH Y, IKAWA C, NISHIHATA T, 1989 Effect of extracts of Zingiberaceae herbs on gastric secretion in rabbits. Chem Pharm Bull 37(1):215-217.

53 YAMAHARA J, RONG HQ, NAITOH Y, KITANI T, FUJIMURA H, 1989 Inhibition of cytotoxic drug-induced vomiting in Suncus by a ginger constituent. J Ethnopharmacol 27(3):353-355.

54 YAMAHARA J, YAMADA T, KIMURA H, SAWADA T, FUJIMURA H, 1982 Biologically active principles of crude drugs. Anti-allergic principles of "Shoseiryu-To". I. Effect on delayed-type allergy reaction. Yakugaku Zasshi 102(9):881-886.

55 MOWREY DB, CLAYSON DE, 1982 Motion sickness, ginger and psychophysics. Lancet 82(1):655-657.

56 GRONTVED A, BRASK T, KAMBSKARD J, HENTZER E, 1988 Ginger root against seasickness. A controlled trial on the open sea. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockholm) 105(1/2):45-49.

57 HOLTMANN S, CLARKE AH, SCHERER H, HOHN M, 1989 The anti-motion sickness mechanism of ginger. A comparative study with placebo and dimenhydrinate. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockholm) 108(3/4):168-174.

58 WOOD CD, MANNO JE, WOOD MJ, MANNO BR, MIMS ME, 1988 Comparison of efficacy of Ginger with various antimotion sickness drug. Clin Res Pract Drug Reg Affairs 6(2):129-136.

59 FISCHER-RASMUSSEN W, KJAER SK, DAHL C, ASPING U, 1991 Ginger treatment of hyperemesis gravidarum. Eur J Obstetr Gynecol Reprod Biol 38(1):19-24.

60 SRIVASTAVA KC, 1989 Effect of onion and ginger consumption on platelet thromboxane production in humans. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes Essent Fatty Acids 35(3):183-185.

61 BETANCOURT J, MARTINEZ MJ, LOPEZ M, MOREJON Z, BARCELO H, LAINEZ A, MONTES ME, REGO R, BOUCOURT E, MORON F, 2000 Toxicidad aguda clásica de rhizome de Zingiber officinalis Roscoe. Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas “Dr. Salvador Allende”, La Habana, Cuba.

62 BETANCOURT J, MARTINEZ MJ, LOPEZ M, MOREJON Z, BOUCOURT E, MORON F, 2000 Actividad genotóxica in vitro de rhizome de Zingiber officinalis Roscoe. Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas “Dr. Salvador Allende”, La Habana.

63 CARBALLO A, 1995 Plantas medicinales del Escambray cubano. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio provincial de producción de medicamentos, Sancti Spiritus, Cuba.

64 ASWAL BS, BHAKUNI DS, GOEL AK, KAR K, MEHROTRA BN, MUKHERJEE KC, 1984 Screening of Indian plants for biological activity: Part X. Indian J Exp Biol 22(6):312-332.

65 EMIG H, 1931 The pharmacological action of ginger. J Amer Pharm Ass 20:114-116.

66 ANON (Select Committee on GRAS Substances), 1976 GRAS status of foods and food additives. Washington DC, USA: Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Federal Register National Archives and Records Administration 41, 38644

67 KUMAZAWA Y, TAKIMOTO H, MIURA SI, NISHIMURA C, YAMADA A, KAWAKITA T, NOMOTO K, 1988 Activation of murine peritoneal macrophages by intraperitoneal administration of a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, Xiao-Chai-Hu-Tang (Japanese name: Shosaiko-To). Int J Inmunopharmacol 10(4):395-403.

68 PERIS JB, STUBING G, 2003 Zingiber officinalis. Vademecum de Fitoterapia, Editorial Masson, Barcelona, España, Jul. 30, 2003. URL: http://www.masson.es/book/fitoterapia.html

Disclaimer

The information provided is for educational purposes only for the benefit of the general public and health professionals. It is not intended to take the place of either the written law or regulations. Since some parts of plants could be toxic, might induce side effects, or might have interactions with certain drugs, anyone intending to use them or their products must first consult with a physician or another qualified health care professional. TRAMIL has no responsibility whatsoever towards the user for any decision, action or omission made in relation to the information contained in this Pharmacopoeia.

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Zingiber officinale

Vernacular names

Saint Lucia:

Antigua and Barbuda:

Barbados:

Dominica:

Puerto Rico:

St Vincent and Grenadines:

Guatemala:

Honduras:

Venezuela:

Costa Rica:

Antigua and Barbuda:

Barbados:

St Vincent and Grenadines:

Dominica:

Puerto Rico:

Costa Rica:

Haiti:

Venezuela:

Botanical description

Voucher(s)

Pharmacopoeia

References

Disclaimer