Cocos nucifera

Scientific name: Cocos nucifera L.

Botanical family: ARECACEAE

Vernacular names

(In territories with significant traditional TRAMIL use)

Nicaragua:

'kukus

Dominica:

coco-tree
coconut tree

St Vincent and Grenadines:

coco-tree
coconut tree

Guatemala:

cocotero

Honduras:

cocotero

Dominican Republic:

cocotero

Other vernacular names

Panama:

Coco

Dominican Republic:

Coco
Coco

Puerto Rico:

Coco

Cuba:

Coco

Honduras:

Coco

Venezuela:

Coco

St Vincent and Grenadines:

Coconut

Dominica:

Coconut

Barbados:

Coconut oil

Haiti:

Kokoye

Nicaragua:

kukus

Geographical distribution

Native to the Pacific islands, cultivated in the tropical regions of the world.

Botanical description

Palm of up to 30 m in height. Large leaves from 3 to 6 m, sometimes hanging, numerous segments, linear-lanceolate from 50 to 70 cm Staminate flowers of 1 to 2 cm, creamy white; the pistillate flowers 2.5 cm, a few in each inflorescence. Ovoid fruit, slightly triangular, 20 to 30 cm, white pulp.

Voucher(s)

Jiménez,1512,JBSD

Girón,270,CFEH

Balland,45,HVB

diarrhoea

fresh fruit, decoction, orally³

urinary infection

fruit water, fresh, orally⁵

boils

fruit oil, poultice, local application¹

burns

fruit oil, poultice¹

arthritis (joint pain)

fruit oil, massages⁶

asthma

fruit oil, orally¹

flu

oil from the fruit, rubbed onto the chest⁴

kidney stones

fruit water, natural, orally^1-²

kidney pain

fruit water, natural, orally^1-2

The fruit (seed, mesoderm) and juice (water) of Cocos nucifera is a food of relatively widespread human consumption.

For asthma:
TRAMIL Work³⁷
drink 1 teaspoon (5 millilitres) of coconut oil a day for 15 to 21 days.

For kidney stones or urinary infection:
drink 1 cup (250 millilitres) of fresh coconut water, 4-6 times a day³⁷.

For flu and joint pain (arthritis):
apply a sufficient amount of coconut oil locally to cover the area, rubbing the chest in cases of flu or massaging the joint in cases of joint pain (arthritis), 3 to 4 times a day.

For boils (furuncles) or burns:
wash the injury with boiled water and soap, apply a sufficient amount of the coconut oil to cover the affected area twice a day. Cover with a dressing or clean cloth and change every 12 hours.

For diarrhoea:
prepare a decoction with 30 grams of leaves in 4 cups (1 litre) of water, boil for 10 minutes in an closed vessel. Leave to cool, strain (filter) and drink 4 cups a day. The consumption of coconut water is recommended for remineralisation in cases of diarrhoea.

Preparations must never be stored for more than 24 hours, even if refrigerated.

According to available information:

Uses for asthma and joint pain (arthritis) are classified as REC based on the significant traditional use documented in the TRAMIL surveys and the validation and toxicity studies.

If deterioration of the patient is observed or if the asthma symptoms persist for more than 2 days or the asthma attacks for more than 1 hour, seek medical attention.

Due to the health risk of asthma, an initial medical assessment is recommended. The use of this resource must be considered complementary to medical treatment, unless contraindicated.

The use for flu (fruit) is classified as REC based on the significant traditional use documented in the TRAMIL surveys, the toxicity studies and the scientific information published.

If deterioration is observed in the patient or the flu symptoms persist for more than 7 days, or the boils for more than 5 days, seek medical attention.

The use for burns is classified as REC based on the significant traditional use documented in the TRAMIL surveys and the toxicity studies.

Traditional use should be limited to superficial burns (epidermal damage) that are minor (less than 10% of the body surface) and located outside high-risk areas such as the face, hands, feet and genitals.

All topical application must follow strict hygiene measures in order to prevent contamination or additional infection.

The use for kidney stones, kidneys and urinary infections is classified as REC based on the significant traditional use documented in the TRAMIL surveys and the scientific information published.

If deterioration is observed in the patient or the urinary symptoms persist for more than 3 days, seek medical attention.

Due to the health risk of urinary infections and kidney stones, an initial medical assessment is recommended. The use of this resource must be considered complementary to medical treatment, unless contraindicated.

Not for use during pregnancy, breastfeeding or in children under 5 years.

TRAMIL Work²⁹
The fruit oil (0.2 ml/day/7 days), orally in Swiss mice (5 males of 26.28 ± 0.62 g and 5 females of 22.76 ± 0.50 g), the control group of 10 mice of the same strain and characteristics, with distilled water (0.2 ml), did not modify the food consumption in a statistically significant way, nor were there significant changes in the body weights, and it did not cause death or evident signs of toxicity during the observation period of 7 days. The macroscopic autopsy showed no alterations in the internal organs.

TRAMIL Work³⁰
With the freeze-dried aqueous extract (decoction) of the fresh fruit (5 g/ kg/day/5 days), orally in Swiss mice (5 males and 5 females), the control with another 10 mice of the same strain and characteristics, with distilled water (0.3 ml), with an observation period of 7 more days at the end of the administration, there was no mortality. However, a statistically significant body weight loss (p < 0.05) was recorded at the end of the first week in relation to the control group and remained until the end of the trial. The other parameters evaluated were not modified, and the macroscopic autopsy did not show any internal alterations.

TRAMIL Work³¹
The pure oil of the fresh fruit (1 g/kg/day/65 days), orally in Hsd:ICR mice of 21.07 ± 1.77g (10 males and 10 females) EPA.OPPTS.870.3100 protocol, with 14 additional days of observation, the control with another 20 mice of the same strain and characteristics with water (0.3 ml/20 g), did not present mortality. During the assay and in the subsequent observation period, mild piloerection was evident in most males in weeks 3 to 11, and no other signs of toxicity were evident (Irwin Multidimensional Test). In the necropsy, small areas of haemorrhaging were observed in the lungs of one control female, one treatment female and three treatment males.

TRAMIL Work³²
The pure oil of the fruit, (0.5 ml/5 cm2 on the back with cut hair on injured skin, 4 hours/day/5 days) topically in 3 New Zealand rabbits, with a contralateral control with the same characteristics without administration, EPA protocol 870.2500, with 11 additional days of observation, did not cause oedema or erythema during the assay.

The seed oil (300 µg/ml) showed cytotoxic activity in CA COLON-HT29 colon carcinoma cell culture³³.

Fixed coconut oil incorporated into the diet of the mice (4-8%) for 52 weeks, inhibited ornithine decarboxylase, increased capillary permeability and induced the development of experimental tumours initiated with dimethylbenz[a]anthracene and promoted with benzoyl peroxide^34-35.

The juice (water) of the nut (3 ml/minute) by intravenous infusion in dogs, showed arrhythmogenic effect; 5 ml/minute caused tachycardia, haemotoxicity, nephrotoxicity and respiratory stimulation and 10 ml/minute, hypotension²⁶.

The seed oil taken orally in humans and dogs showed hypercholesterolaemic properties³⁶.

There is no information available documenting the safety of medicinal use in children, during pregnancy or breastfeeding.

The fruit juice (water) contains sugar: sorbitol; organic acids: malic acid; amino acids and an aminopurine. The copra (artificially dried seed) contains 20% carbohydrates, 8% protein and 65% lipids: glycerides of lauric, myristic, caprylic and capric acids^7-8.

The endosperm contains sorbitol⁹; proteins: alanine, arginine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, isoleucine, lysine, methionine, serine, valine, hydroxyproline¹⁰ and linamarase¹¹; alkanes: 2,3-butanediol; lactone: δ-decalactone, δ-dodecalactone, δ-octalactone; lipids: decanoic, lauric, octanoic acids; alkaloids: 2,3,5-trimethyl amino-pyrazine; C4 ketone: acetoin, 2,3-butanedione⁸ and carbohydrates: galactitol⁹.

The seed oil contains among others the following substances: triterpenes: α-amyrin, β-amyrin, squalene, cycloartenol, 24-methylene cycloartenol; steroids: campesterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol; alkanes: n-docosane, n-dotriacontane, n-eicosane, n-heneicosane, n-hentriacontane, n-heptacosane, n-heptadecane, n-nonacosane, n-nonadecane, n-octacosane, n-octadecane, n-pentacosane, n-triacontane, n-tricosane⁷; lipids caproic acid¹²; vitamin E¹³.

Proximate analysis of 100 g of the unripe fruit¹⁴: calories: 77; water: 84%; protein: 1.4%; fat: 3.6%; carbohydrates: 10.3%; fibre: 0.4%; ash: 0.7%; calcium: 42 mg; phosphorus: 56 mg; iron: 1 mg; sodium: 51 mg; potassium: 257 mg; carotene: 0 µg; thiamine: 0.04 mg; riboflavin: 0.03 mg; niacin: 0.80 mg; ascorbic acid: 6 mg.

TRAMIL Work¹⁵
The coconut oil (0.1, 0.2, 0.4 and 0.8 ml/kg body weight) orally in anaesthetised rabbits decreased the pulmonary resistance in a statistically significant way with the doses of 0.4 and 0.8 ml/kg.

TRAMIL Works^16-17
The fresh fruit water and fresh fruit pulp, filtered with a gauze (100 µl/well) in vitro, showed no activity against Staphylococus aureus (ATCC 29737), Escherichia coli (ATCC 10536), Citrobacter koseri and Salmonella sp.

TRAMIL Work¹⁸
The aqueous extract (decoction) of young fruit and the oil of the ripe fruit (1000 µg/ml) in vitro showed no activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella gallinarum, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Candida albicans or Mycobacterium smegmatis.

TRAMIL Work¹⁹
The freeze-dried aqueous extract (decoction) from the fresh fruit, single dose (1 g/kg), was administered orally to Swiss mice (5 males and 5 females), fasting for 6 hours, control group with the same characteristics received distilled water (0.3 ml/20 g). Activated carbon was used as a marker of transit speed and the measurement was made 1 hour after administration of the extract. The extract did not statistically significantly modify intestinal transit.

TRAMIL Work²⁰
The fruit oil (2.6 kg of liquefied mass with 1.09 l of fresh coconut water and 410 ml of distilled water, strained and heated to 96 ºC until the oil was obtained by decantation and centrifugation, yield 7.24% w/w, 4 mg/ear), was administered topically in a volume of 10 µl of oil solution: acetone (200 mg/ml) in both sides of the right ear, model of inflammation induced by 10 µl solution in acetone of tetradecanoylphorbol acetate (TPA 0.125 mg/ml) for 4 hours in Hsd:ICR mice (CD-1), groups of 6 males and 6 females, acetone negative control and indomethacin solution positive control (25 mg/ml). A significant inhibition of inflammation was observed in the groups treated with the extract.

The nut tincture (10 g plant material in 100 ml ethanol), 30 µl/disc on agar plate, showed no activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus or Candida albicans and weak activity against Escherichia coli²¹.

The ethanolic extract (95%) of the dried shell (100 µg/ml) in vitro exhibited antifungal activity against Microsporum audouinii, M. canis, M. gypseum, Trichophytum mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, T. tonsurans and T. violaceum and with 200 µg/ml against Epidermophyton floccosum²².

The seed oil (0.05 ml) in vitro showed an antifungal effect against Absidia corymbifera, Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Penicillium nigricans and Candida albicans²³.

The nut decoction (1 g/kg) orally in rats showed a diuretic effect²⁴.

The fruit water (50 ml/kg) was administered orally to 10 Wistar rats (200-250 g body weight) in the diuresis assay, with control groups with the same characteristics and which received tap water, 4% glucose solution and 4% glucose solution with 61 millimoles/l KCl; the measurement of urine volume at 30 minute intervals showed that coconut water produced a significantly greater diuretic effect than tap water. The effect of 4% glucose was less than that produced by fruit water and similar to that of glucose with KCl.

The pH and the sodium, chlorine and potassium content of the urine did not differ between coconut water and glucose with KCl²⁵.

The nut juice (water) (3 ml/minute) by intravenous infusion in dogs showed weak diuretic activity²⁶.

Bacteriological analysis of the green fruit juice (water), used in oral rehydration in Brazil, demonstrated its sterility²⁷.

The seed oil (10% of the diet) orally in female mice caused an oestrogenic effect²⁸.

Pharmacopoeia

Ed.3

References

1 GERMOSEN-ROBINEAU L, GERONIMO M, AMPARO C, 1984
Encuesta TRAMIL. enda-caribe, Santo Domingo, Rep. Dominicana.

2 LAGOS-WITTE S, 1988-89, 1996
Encuesta TRAMIL. Laboratorio de Histología Vegetal y Etnobotánica, Departamento de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras UNAH, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.

3 AKER CH, GARMENDIA M, DEVES R, FERNANDEZ P, FRITHZ E, HERNANDEZ M, SIMEON A, 2003
Encuesta TRAMIL-GEF Bosawas. Departamento de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua UNAN-León, León, Nicaragua.

4 CHARLES C, 1988
TRAMIL survey. Movement for Cultural Awareness MCA, Roseau, Dominica.

5 GIRON L, 1988
Encuesta TRAMIL (Costa atlántica). Centro Mesoamericano de Tecnología CEMAT, Guatemala, Guatemala.

6 BALLAND V, GLASGOW A, SPRINGER F, GAYMES G, 2004
TRAMIL survey. enda-caribbean, IICA, UAG & U.PARIS XI, Saint Vincent.

7 MOURA FE JA, BROWN WH, WHITING FM, STULL JW, 1975 Unsaponifiable matter of crude and processed coconut oil. J Sci Food Agr 26(4):523- 531.

8 PARIS R, MOYSE H, 1981
Précis de matière médicale. Paris, France: Ed. Maloine.

9 SAITTAGAROON S, KAWAKISHI S, NAMIKI M, 1985
Generation of mannitol from copra meal. J Food Sci 50(3):757-760.

10 TAKEUCHI K, 1961
Amino acids in the endosperm of some Amazonian Palmae. Chiba Daigaku Buurii Gakuba Kiyo Shizen Kagaku 3:321-325.

11 JANSZ BR, JEYARAJ EE, PIERIS N, ABEYRATNE DJ, 1974
Cyanide liberation from linamarin. J Natl Sci Counc Sri Lanka 2:57-65.

12 KINDERLERER JL, KELLARD B, 1987
Alkylpyrazines produced by bacterial spoilage of heat-treated and gamma-irradiated coconut. Chem Ind (London) 16:567-568.

13 MANNAN A, AHMAD K, 1966
Studies on vitamin E in foods of East Pakistan. Pak J Biol Agr Sci 9:13.

14 DUKE JA, ATCHLEY AA, 1986
Handbook of proximate analysis tables of higher plants. Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press. p47.

15 CAMBAR P, ALGER J, 1989
Efectos broncopulmonares del aceite de coco en conejos. Informe TRAMIL. Unidad de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Medicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras UNAH, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.

16 BOUCOURT E, MARTINEZ M J, MOREJON Z, 2010
Evaluación de la actividad antimicrobiana del agua de fruto fresco de Cocos nucifera L. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas “Dr. Salvador Allende”, C. Habana, Cuba.

17 BOUCOURT E, MARTINEZ M J, MOREJON Z, 2010
Evaluación de la actividad antimicrobiana de la pulpa tierna del fruto fresco de Cocos nucifera L. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio Central de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas “Dr. Salvador Allende”, C. Habana, Cuba.

18 OLMEDO D, RODRIGUEZ N, ESPINOSA A, VASQUEZ Y, GUPTA MP, 2005
Ensayo antimicrobiano de algunas especies con usos significativos TRAMIL-Centroamérica. Informe TRAMIL. Centro de Investigaciones Farmacognósticas de la Flora Panameña CIFLORPAN, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Panamá, Panamá, Panamá.

19 GARCIA-GONZÁLEZ M, BARBOZA CJ, 2005
Velocidad del tránsito intestinal en ratones, del extracto acuoso del fruto fresco de Cocos nucifera. Informe TRAMIL. PRONAPLAMED. Depto de Fisiología, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica.

20 PAZOS L, COTO T, REYES L, 2007
Antiinflamatorio tópico, en ratones, del aceite del fruto de Cocus nucifera. Informe TRAMIL, Laboratorio de Ensayos Biológicos, LEBi, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica.

21 CACERES A, GIRON LM, ALVARADO SR, TORRES MF, 1987 Screening of antimicrobial activity of plants popularly used in Guatemala for the treatment of dermatomucosal diseases. J Ethnopharmacol 20(3):223-237.

22 VENKATARAMAN S, RAMANUJAN T, VENKATASUBBU V, 1980 Antifungal activity of the alcoholic extract of coconut shell Cocos nucifera L. J Ethnopharmacol 2(3):291-293.

23 JAIN SK, AGRAWAL SC, 1992
Sporostatic effect of some oils against fungi causing otomycosis. Indian J Med Sci 46(1):1-6.

24 CACERES A, GIRON LM, MARTINEZ AM, 1987
Diuretic activity of plants used for the treatments of urinary ailments in Guatemala. J Ethnopharmacol 19(3):233-245.

25 RODRÍGUEZ M, SÁNCHEZ C, 1982
Diuresis del agua de pipa (Cocos nucifera) en ratas. Rev Méd Panamá 7(3):186-19l.

26 KETUSINH O, 1954
Risks associate with intravenous infusion of coconut juice. J Med Ass Thailand 37(5):249-271.

27 MORTON J, 1981
Atlas of medicinal plants of Middle America. Springfield, USA: III: Charles C. Thomas Publisher.

28 BOOTH AN, BICKOFF EM, KOHLER GO, 1960
Estrogen-like activity in vegetable oils and mill by-products. Science 131:1807-1808.

29 GARCIA-GONZÁLEZ M, BARBOZA CJ, 2005
Toxicidad aguda dosis repetida, en ratones, del extracto acuoso del aceite del fruto de Cocos nucifera. Informe TRAMIL. PRONAPLAMED. Depto de Fisiología, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica.

30 GARCIA-GONZÁLEZ M, BARBOZA CJ, 2005
Toxicidad aguda (5000 mg/kg) dosis repetida, en ratones, del extracto acuoso (decocción) del fruto fresco de Cocos nucifera. Informe TRAMIL. PRONAPLAMED. Depto de Fisiología, Escuela de Medicina, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica.

31 PAZOS L, COTO T, GONZALEZ S, 2006
Toxicidad oral subcrónica, dosis repetida, en ratón, de aceite del fruto fresco de Cocus nucifera. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio de Ensayos Biológicos, LEBi, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica.

32 PAZOS L, COTO T, GONZALEZ S, 2006
Irritabilidad dérmica, piel lesionada en conejos, del aceite del fruto puro de Cocus nucifera. Informe TRAMIL. Laboratorio de Ensayos Biológicos, LEBi, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica.

33 SALERNO JW, SMITH DE, 1991
The use of sesame oil and other vegetable oils in the inhibiting of human colon cancer growth in vitro. Anticancer Res 11(1):209 215.

34 LOCNISKAR M, BELURY MA, CUMBERLAND AG, PATRICK KE, FISCHER SM, 1991
The effect of dietary lipid on skin tumor promotion by benzoyl peroxide, comparison of fish, coconut and corn oil. Carcinogenesis 12(6):1023-1028.

35 BERTON TR, FISCHER SM, CONTI CJ, LOCNISKAR MF, 1996
Comparison of ultraviolet light-induced skin carcinogenesis and ornithine decarboxylase activity in sencar and hairless SKH-1 mice fed a constant level of dietary lipid varying in corn and coconut oil. Nutr Cancer 26(3):353-363.

36 CHINDAVANIG A, 1971
Effect of vegetable oils in plasma cholesterol in man and dog. Master Thesis, Dept. Biochemistry, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.

37 CARBALLO A, 1995
Cálculo de concentración y dosis de las drogas vegetales TRAMIL: Mensuraciones farmacognósticas y aproximaciones técnicoclínicas. Laboratorio Provincial de Producción de Medicamentos, Sancti Spiritus, Cuba.

Disclaimer

The information provided is for educational purposes only for the benefit of the general public and health professionals. It is not intended to take the place of either the written law or regulations. Since some parts of plants could be toxic, might induce side effects, or might have interactions with certain drugs, anyone intending to use them or their products must first consult with a physician or another qualified health care professional. TRAMIL has no responsibility whatsoever towards the user for any decision, action or omission made in relation to the information contained in this Pharmacopoeia.

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Cocos nucifera

Vernacular names

Nicaragua:

Dominica:

St Vincent and Grenadines:

Guatemala:

Honduras:

Dominican Republic:

Panama:

Dominican Republic:

Puerto Rico:

Cuba:

Honduras:

Venezuela:

St Vincent and Grenadines:

Dominica:

Barbados:

Haiti:

Nicaragua:

Geographical distribution

Botanical description

Voucher(s)

Pharmacopoeia

References

Disclaimer